Note: A list of references to over 100 studies which report favourably on NLP claims can be found at the end of this FAQ. The Man from the Royal Horticultural Society, He Say ...*Two of the most frequently offered complaints about "NLP" and research address an apparent lack of supportive evidence for whatever each critic thinks of as "NLP". And the fact that NLPers seem to be unwilling to carry out any such research themselves.
On the first count, by offering course credits, etc. rather than cash payments, university-based researchers can greatly reduce their overheads, compared to the costs encountered by private researchers trying to mount a study of any significant size. Moreover, much of the research that occurs in an academic context may be at least partially funded by private donations and/or grants from one organization or another. Thus the argument that NLPers are some how "dodging the column" by not carrying out research actually presents a highly misleading picture of the situation. On the second count, the accusation is frequently made by critics of NLP that it can't be any good/shouldn't be used, because of the lack of supporting evidence. Which would be a telling point were it not for the fact that a large portion of the field of non-materialistically-based psychology has no basis in empirical research either. Thus the late Professor Margaret Singer felt obliged to admit, in her book Crazy Therapies (1996), that: ... rational and long-used counseling techniques may not all have been scientifically validated, but for decades they have met the requirements for the standard of practice in the general psychotherapy field. Which isn't nearly as reassuring as it may sound. Because psychotherapy and science have seldom gone hand in hand. Indeed, Dr. Donald Eisner, in his book The Death of Psychotherapy (2000), claims that of the 500 plus forms of psychotherapy that he has investigated very, very few have any basis in empirical research. And that isn't the end of the story. In a recent (at the time of writing) gardening programming on BBC TV (Gardeners' World, BBC2, April 2011), Colin Crosbie, Curator of the Royal Horticultural Society's centre at Wisley, was being interviewed about the approach to the introduction of new products and methods used at the centre when he made this very pertinent comment: ... as gardeners we know [when something] works, that's why we do those jobs in the garden, and we see the end product. ... then the science catches up and looks for how things are working. If the idea of adopting a technique or product is acceptable because "it works" is acceptable in a genuinely scientific context, like botany/biology/chemistry, even if it has yet to be validated, on what basis can we reasonably reject a similar approach in regard to the concepts and techniques of the field of NLP (FoNLP)? (* Note: If the heading sounds familiar it may be because it is based on a slogan used by a producer of fruit juices and canned fruit: "The Man from Del Monte, he say YES!") Academics and the Question "What is NLP?"Just before we get to the main subject of this FAQ, I would like to pass on a piece of information that I have discovered in the course of reading a couple of dozen academic criticisms of what the authors think is "NLP". And it is simply this: If the criticisms I have read so far make up anything like a reliable indicator, then when it comes to the subject of "NLP", academics suffer from tunnel vision. (Note: All of the articles mentioned below can be accessed via FAQ #28) For example, Drs Stephen Hunt and David Major are involved with religious studies, and they both single "NLP" out as being "not a religion but something like a religion" (yes, seriously). They say nothing about "NLP" being a form of psychotherapy, and completely ignore the question of scientific evaluation that we will consider in this FAQ. Drs Spicer and Boussebaa, on the other hand, are both concerned with management and globalisation - and whilst they very briefly mention Sharpley as a critic of "NLP", most of their article is concerned with the philosophy of conflict and a rather strange claim that NLPers are failing to fulfil a promise to make the world conflict-free. To all intents and purposes they ignore any allegations about religion or scientific validation. Dr John Norcross, Dr Gerald Koocher et al, have produced two very dubious articles allegedly in support of EBP (evidence-based practice) in psychological treatments, but make little or no mention of any previous research on "NLP", using instead the results of two polls of non-expert "experts"* and their opinions. Even the authors of the two articles admit that the number of people taking part are too few to make the poll results worthwhile. And in any case, the "appeal to authority", which is all these studies amount to, is not a logically valid form of argument and is therefore certainly not scientific. (* That is to say, being an expert in one area of psychology does not automatically qualify a person as an expert in all areas of psychology. The declared aim of Norcross, Koocher et al's deeply flawed research was to identify "discredited" tests and treatments - though without a hint of how they had been discredited, or who by. Indeed, most of the work by psychologists that I've reviewed so far seems to have no other raison d'etre than to try to boost the academic status of their own subject by bad mouthing someone else. Thus the allegedly NLP-related articles usually hammer on about "NLP" not being "scientifically validated". Ironically this turns out to be something of an "own goal", since psychology itself (unless it is physiologically-based) is not, as we shall now see, a genuinely scientific field of study. Is Psychology a Science?Of course psychologists want to be seen as scientists, because this would raise their status in academic circles and make it easier to pull in the grants needed to fund further research. But wanting psychology to be a science doesn't make it one.
Michael Gazzaniga, a Professor of Cognitive Neuroscience, went so far as to claim that "psychology is dead", though I think what he actually meant was that non-physiologically-based psychology is seen as little more than counselling in an academia that is dominated by materialist reductionist thinking* (pages xi-xii). (* Materialist reductionism, a view of "reality" which asserts that nothing exists except that which can be reduced to basic atomic level building blocks. It is an extension of Logical Positivism, a school of philosophy based on the belief that no statement can be "meaningful" if it isn't open to empirical verification.) Chris Frith, a Professor of Neuropsychology, put it even more bluntly in the title of the first section of his book, Prologue: Real Scientists Don't Study the Mind (page 1). And Liam Hudson, who graduated from Oxford, worked as a researcher at Cambridge, and served as Professor of Psychology at Edinburgh and Brunel, etc., came at the subject from a rather different angle when he started his book thus: "This is a book about professional psychologists and the visions they pursue. It expresses a growing dissatisfaction with the self-consciously scientific psychology in which I myself was trained - an activity that, increasingly over the last ten years, has taken on the air of a masquerade. It has been written in the hope that, somewhere behind the paraphernalia of false science and apparent objectivity, there lies the possibility of a more genuinely dispassionate study of human nature and human action." (page 11) The essential detail here is that "science" deals with objective reality (as far as that is possible), whilst psychology in general and Neuro-Linguistic Programming in particular, deal with subjectivity. A scientist could use various methods (CAT scan, fMRI, etc.) to see what is going on in my brain when I am looking at a large surface coloured red. And he or she could use that method to see what is going on in your head when you look at the same surface. But then we come to something entirely incontrovertible, yet untestable. There is no way our scientist, whatever their speciality, whatever equipment they may have available to them, can discover whether my experience matches your experience whilst we were looking at that same surface. Or again, Arthur, Bert and Clark hear a joke. Arthur falls down laughing, Bert also laughs, but not nearly as hard, and not for as long. Clark doesn't laugh at all, but says he thought the joke was very amusing. How can a scientist discover which of the three thought the joke was "funniest"? In short, science cannot investigate subjective experience and produce definitive results. And Neuro-Linguistic Programming, as many readers will already know, was defined in the "tag title" of Neuro-Linguistic Programming: Volume 1 (a book co-authored by Robert Dilts, John Grinder, Richard Bandler, Leslie Cameron-Bandler (now Leslie Lebeau) and Judith DeLozier), as "The Study of the Structure of Subjective Experience". Another PerspectiveSo how do things stand at the moment as far as "scientific" research into the FoNLP (Field of NLP* is concerned? Keeping things simple, the situation is actually split three ways: (* The "field of NLP (FoNLP) consists of NLP itself (the specific modelling technique), the NLP-related techniques and applications, and NLP-related training.)
To put a little more flesh on those bones:
Having said all that, some research has already been carried out on the use of NLP by people who genuinely understand NLP. Some years back Richard Bolstad, a well-known NLP trainer and author from New Zealand, compiled a list of "successful" research into the use of various NLP-related techniques, and his results can be seen here: More recently the team at the Australian NLP training company Inspiritive have initiated an ongoing programme of research into the various NLP models and techniques following the principles of "best practice" for this kind of activity. As of June, 2006. the University of Surrey, in the UK, has been supporting a project similar to the one in Australia, led by Paul Tosey, senior lecturer at the university, and Jane Mathison, who became only the second person in the world to be awarded a Ph.D based on a thesis which focused (positively) on NLP. And despite my reservations, Richard Churches has compiled the following list of research papers specifically related to NLP and various aspects of education: Creativity and self-expressionBeeden, S. (2009) Applying Dilts’ `Disney creativity strategy’ within the Higher Education arts, design and media environment, in P.Tosey,(ed.), Current research in NLP; Volume 1, proceedings of the first international NLP research conference, University of Surrey, 5th July 2008. ANLP International CIC. South Mimms, Hertfordshire, UK. Ronne, M. (1998) A theoretical approach to creative expression for school counselling, PhD Thesis, The Union Institute. Winch, S. (2005) From frustration to satisfaction: using NLP to improve self- expression, in Proceedings of the 18th EA Educational Conference 2005, Surry Hills NSW. e-learningGhaoui, C. and Janvier, W.A. (2009) Interactive e-learning, International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 2: 3: 2: 26-35. Sheridan, R.D. (2008) Teaching the elderly effective learning strategies in relation to internet use, PhD Thesis, University of Brighton. Zhang, N. and Ward, A.E. (2004) On the adaption of e-learning content to learner NLP input sensory preference, International Conference on Innovation, Good Practice and Research in Engineering Education, 131-137, Wolverhampton, 3-4, June. Emotional, social, behavioural and learning difficultiesBeaver, R. (1989) Neuro-Linguistic programme as practised by an educational psychologist, Association of Educational Psychologists Journal, 5: 2: 87-90. Bull, L. (2007) Sunflower therapy for children with specific learning difficulties (dyslexia): a randomised, controlled trial, Complementary therapies in clinical practice, 13: 1: 15-24. Childers, J.H. (1989) Looking at yourself through loving eyes, Elementary School Guidance and Counseling, 23: 3: 204-209. Esterbrook, R.L. (2006) Introducing Russian Neuro-Linguistic Programming behavior modification techniques to enhance learning and coping skills for high-risk students in community colleges: an initial investigation, Doctoral Dissertation, George Mason University, Fairfax VA. Fruchter, H.J. (1983) Sensory reinforcement in the service of aggression maintenance in children: a treatment study, Dissertation Abstracts International 45(3) 1013-B Syracuse University. Renwich, F. (2005) The ‘A Quiet Place’ programme: Short-term support for pupils with social, emotional and behavioural difficulties in mainstream schools, Educational and Child Psychology, The British Psychological Society, 22: 3: 78-88. Squirrel, L. (2009) Can Neuro-Linguistic Programming work with young children who display varying Social, Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties?, in P.Tosey (ed.), Current research in NLP; vol 1: proceedings of the first international NLP research conference, University of Surrey, 5th July 2008, South Mimms, Hertfordshire: ANLP International CIC. English as a foreign languageHarris, T. (2001) NLP if it works use it . . ., CAUCE, Revista de Filología y su Didáctica, 24: 29-38. Knowles, J. (1983) The old brain, the new mirror: matching teaching and learning styles in foreign language class (based on Neuro-Linguistic Programming), Paper presented at the Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages, Baltimore, MD, April 28th -May 1st 1983. Further and Higher educationJohnson, S. (2004) ‘Strategies for success’: integrating Neuro Linguistic Programming into the undergraduate curriculum, paper presented at The 12th Improving Student Learning Symposium, Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development, Oxford Brookes University, Birmingham, 6-8 September. Murray, P. and Murray, S. (2007) Promoting sustainability values within career-oriented degree programmes: a case study analysis, International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 8: 16-300. Skinner, H. and Croft, R. (2009) Neuro-Linguistic Programming techniques to improve the self-efficacy of undergraduate dissertation students, Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education, 1: 1: 9-38. Language and learningEckstein, D. (2004) Reframing as an innovative educational technique: turning a perceived inability into an asset, Korean Journal of Thinking and Problem Solving, 14: 1: 37-47. Marcello, M. (2003) Language and identity: learning and the learner, paper presented at the Tenth International Literacy and Education Research Network Conference on Learning. Institute of Education, University of London 15th – 18th July 2003. Mathison, J. (2004) The inner life of words: an investigation into language in learning and teaching, PhD thesis, University of Surrey. Mathison, J. and Tosey, P. (2008c) Riding into Transformative Learning, Journal of Consciousness Studies, 15: 2: 67-88. McCabe, D. (1985) Meeting language needs of all types of learners, Academic Therapy, 20: 5: 563-567. Millrood, R. (2004) The role of NLP in teachers' classroom discourse, ELT Journal, 58: 10-37. Leadership and management in education and in generalDowlen, A. (1996) NLP - help or hype? Investigating the uses of neuro-Linguistic Programming in management learning, Career Development International, 1: 27-34. Helm, D.J. (1994) Neuro-Linguistic Programming: establishing rapport between school administrators and the students, staff and community, Education, 114: 4: 625-627. Hutchinson, G, Churches, R. and Vitae, D. (2006) The consultant leader programme in London’s PRUs and EBD schools; impact report 3: towards system leadership, Reading: CfBT Education Trust and the National College for School Leadership. Hutchinson, G., Churches, R. and Vitae, D. (2007) NCSL London Leadership Strategy, consultant leaders to support leadership capacity in London’s PRUs and EBD Schools: impact report: roll-out, July 2007, Reading: CfBT Education Trust and the National College for School Leadership. Hutchinson, G., Churches, R. and Vitae, D. (2008)Together we have made a difference: consultant leaders to support leadership capacity in London’s PRUs and EBD schools, final programme report, Reading: CfBT Education Trust and the National College for School Leadership, San Diego, California: Jensen Learning. Jones, J. and Attfield, R. (2007) Flying high: some leadership lessons from the Fast Track teaching programme, Reading: CfBT Education Trust. Unpublished. Young, J. A. (1995) Developing leadership from within: a descriptive study of the use of Neurolinguistic Programming practices in a course on leadership, Dissertation, Ohio State University, Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. Vol 56 (1-A). Meta programs in the classroomBrown, N. (2002) Meta program patterns in accounting educators at a UK business school, Accounting Education, 11: 79-91. Brown, N. (2003) A comparison of the dominant meta program patterns in accounting undergraduate students and accounting lecturers at a UK business school, Accounting Education, 12: 159-175. Brown, N. (2004) What makes a good educator? The relevance of meta programs, Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 29: 5: 515-533. Brown, N. and Graff, M. (2004) Student performance in business and accounting subjects as measured by assessment results: an exploration of the relevance of personality traits, identified using meta programs, International Journal of Management Education, 4: 3-18. ModellingDay, T. (2005) NLP modelling in the classroom: students modelling the good practice of other students, paper presented at the British Educational Research Association New Researchers/Student Conference, University of Glamorgan, 14th September 2005. Day, T. (2008a) A study of a small-scale classroom intervention that uses an adapted Neuro-Linguistic Programming modelling approach, PhD Thesis, University of Bath. ParentsMunaker, S. (1997) The great aha! a path to transformation, PhD Dissertation, Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. Vol 57(11-A), May 1997. Outdoor educationLee, A. (1993) Outdoor education and Neuro-Linguistic Programming, Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Leadership, 10: 16-17. ParentsBrandis, (1987) A neurolinguistic treatment for reducing parental anger responses and creating more resourceful behavioral options, California School of Professional Psychology, Los Angeles, Dissertation Abstract Dissertation Abstracts International. Vol 47(11-B), May 1987. De Mirandi, C.T., de Paula, C.S., Palma, D., da Silva, E.M., Martin, D. and de Nobriga, F.J. (1999) Impact of the application of neurolinguistic programming to mothers of children enrolled in a day care center of a shantytown, Sao Paulo Medical Journal, 4: 117(2): 63-71. Hall, E., Wall, K., Higgins, S., Stephen, L., Pooley and Welham, J. (2005) Learning to learn with parents: lessons from two research projects, Improving Schools, 8: 179-191. Peer counselingDailey, A.L. (1989) Neuro Linguistic Programming in peer counselor education, Journal of College Student Development, 30: 2: 173-175. Research methodology and NLPMathison, J. and Tosey, P. (2008a) Innovations in constructivist research: NLP, psycho-phenomenology and the exploration of inner landscapes, The Psychotherapist, 37: 5-8. Mathison, J. and Tosey, P. (2008b) Exploring inner landscapes: NLP and psycho-phenomenology as innovations in researching first-person experience, Qualitative Research in Management and Organization Conference, New Mexico, March 11th -13th 2008. Steinfield, T.R. and Ben-Avie, M. (2006) A Brief Discussion of the Usefulness of NLP in Action-Based Education Research. Paper presented at the NLP and research: a symposium, Surrey University School of Management, University of Surrey, 16th June 2006. Spelling strategyLoiselle F. (1985) The effect of eye placement on orthographic memorization, PH.D. Thesis, Faculté des Sciences Sociales, Université de Moncton, New Brunswick, Canada. Malloy, T.E. (1987) Teaching integrated thought. Techniques and data, Paper presented at Annual Meeting of the Conference on College Composition and Communication 19th-12th March. Available at ERIC. Malloy, T.E. (1989) Principles for teaching cognitive strategies, University of Utah, available at www.kattmodel.se. Malloy, T.E. (1995) Empirical evaluation of the effectiveness of a visual spelling strategy, in K.H. Schick (ed), Rechtschreibtherapie, Paderborn, Junfermann Verlag. Teacher perspectives and developmentCarey, J., Churches, R., Hutchinson, G., Jones, J. and Tosey, P. (2009) Neuro-Linguistic Programming and learning: teacher case studies on the impact of NLP in education, Reading: CfBT Education Trust. Churches, R. and West-Burnham (2008) Leading learning through relationships: the implications of Neuro-Linguistic Programming for personalisation and the Children’s Agenda in England, Reading: CfBT Education Trust. Churches, R. and West-Burnham, J. (2009) Leading learning through relationships: the implications of Neuro-Linguistic Programming for personalisation and the Children’s Agenda in England, in P. Tosey, P. (ed.), Current research in NLP, vol 1: proceedings of the first international NLP research conference, University of Surrey, 5th July 2008, South Mimms, Hertfordshire: ANLP International CIC, pp.126-136. Dragovic, T. (2007) Teachers' professional identity and the role of CPD in its creation - a report on a study into how NLP and non-NLP trained teachers in Slovenia talk about their professional identity and their work, International Society for Teacher Education, 27th Annual International Seminar at University of Stirling, Scotland, 24th –30th June 2007. Teaching and learning in generalChilders, J.H. (1985) Neuro-Linguistic Programming: enhancing teacher-student communications, Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development, 24: 1: 32-39. Dolnick, K. (2006) Neuro-Linguistic applications to classroom management: reach them to teach them, PhD Thesis, Capella University. Girija Navaneedhan, C. and Saraladevi Devi, K. (2009) Influence of learning techniques on information processing, US-China Education Review, 6: 1 (Serial No.50): 1-32. Helm, D.J. (1989) Education: the wagon train to the stars/it’s time to `jump start’ learning through NLP’, Education, 110: 2: 54-256. Helm, D.J. (1990) Neurolinguistic Programming: equality as to distribution of learning modalities, Journal of Instructional Psychology, 17: 3: 159-160. Helm, D.J. (1991) Neurolinguistic Programming: gender and the learning modalities create inequalities in learning: a proposal to reestablish equality and promote new levels of achievement in education, Journal of Instructional Psychology, 18: 3: 167-169. Helm, D.J. (2000) Neuro-Linguistic Programming: enhancing learning for the visually impaired, Education, 120: 5: 790-794. Hillin, H.H. (1982) Effects of a rapport method and chemical dependency workshop for adults employed in Kansas service agencies, Dissertation Abstracts International 44(12), 3574-A, Kansas State University. Kennedy, C. and And, O. (1994) Study strategies: a formula for exceptional outcomes in the mainstream, paper presented at the Annual Convention of the Council for Exceptional Children, 72nd, Denver, CO, April 6th –10th, 1994. Parr, G. and And, O. (1986) The effectiveness of Neurolinguisitc Programming in a small-group setting, Journal of College Student Personnel, 27: 358-361. Ragan, J. and Ragan, T. (1982) Working effectively with people: contributions of neurolinguistic Programming (NLP) to visual literacy, paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Visual Literacy Association (13th, Lexington, KY, October 31st - November 3rd, in Journal of Visual Verbal Languaging, 2: 2: 67-79. Raja, R. and Tien, N. (2009) Exploring multi-modality tools of Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) to facilitate better learning among primary school students National Institute of Education, Singapore, Redesigning Pedagogy, International Conference 1-3 June. Sandhu, D.S. (1994) Suggestopedia and Neurolinguistic Programming: introduction to whole brain teaching and psychotherapy, Journal of Accelerative Learning and Teaching, 19: 3: 229-240. Schaefer, J. and Schajor, S. (1999) Learning with all one's senses: Neurolinguistic Programming in the teaching of pediatric nursing, Kinderkrankenschwester, 18: 7: 289-91. Stanton, H. E. (1989) Using Neuro-Linguistic Programming in the schools, Journal of the Society for Accelerative Learning and Teaching, 14: 4: 311-326. Stanton, H. E. (1998) Reducing test anxiety by a combination of hypnosis and NLP, Journal of Accelerated Learning and Teaching, 23: 59-65. Tosey, P. and Mathison, J. (2003a) Neuro-Linguistic Programming: its potential for teaching and learning in higher education, paper presented at the European Educational Research Association conference, University of Hamburg, 17th – 20th September 2003. Tosey, P. and Mathison, J. (2003b) Neuro-Linguistic Programming and learning theory: a response, Curriculum Journal, 14: 3: 371-388. Tosey, P., Mathison, J. and Michelli, D. (2005) Mapping transformative learning: the potential of Neuro-Linguistic Programming, Journal of Transformative Education, 3: 2: 140-167. Thalgott, M.R. (1986) Anchoring: a ‘cure’ for Epy, Academic Therapy, 21: 3: 347-352. Woerner, J. and Stonehouse, H. (1988) The use of Neuro-Linguistic Programming model for learning success, School Science and Mathematics, 88:516-524. Zechmeister, E. (2003) The impact of NLP on the performance and motivation of primary school children, PhD Thesis, Leopold-Franzens-Universität, Innsbruck. Vocal trainingPruett, J.A.S. (2002) The application of the Neuro-Linguistic Programming model to vocal performance training, DMA Thesis, University of Texas, Austin. Zechmeister, E. (2003) The impact of NLP on the performance and motivation of primary school children, PhD Thesis, Leopold-Franzens-Universität, Innsbruck. Papers and research that question the use of NLP in educationOnly papers from the 1980’s contain formal research evidence that is critical. Furthermore, the methodologies used in these have been criticised - in most cases because of inaccurate application/interpretation of NLP techniques (See Carey et al., 2009). So far, no critical papers (since the 1980’s) contain research evidence-based criticism that is the result of actual NLP research studies. Zechmeister, E. (2003) The impact of NLP on the performance and motivation of primary school children, PhD Thesis, Leopold-Franzens-Universität, Innsbruck. ResearchBradley, G. M. (1986) The effectiveness of a Neurolinguistic Programming treatment for students test anxiety, Melbourne: La Trobe University. Cassiere, M. F. and And, O. (1987) Gender differences in the primary representational system according to Neurolinguistic Programming, paper presented at the Annual Convention of the Southwestern Psychological Association, 33rd, New Orleans, LA, April 16th –18th. Fremder, L.A. (1986) Generalization of visual dot pattern strategies to number pattern strategies by learning disabled students, Dissertation Abstracts International 47(11), 4055-A Columbia University Teachers College. Schleh, M.N. (1987) An examination of the Neurolinguistic Programming hypothesis on eye movements in children, Dissertation Abstracts International 48(2), 584-B Biola University, Rosemead School of Psychology. Semtner, E.A. (1986) An investigation into the relevance of using Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP) as an aid in individualizing college reading programs, Dissertation Abstracts International 47(4). PerspectivesBurton, D. (2007) Psycho-pedagogy and personalised learning, Journal of Education for Teaching International Research and Pedagogy, 33: 13-17. Craft, A. (2001) Neuro-Linguistic Programming and learning theory, Curriculum Journal, 12: 125-136. Lisle, A. (2005) The double loop: reflections on personal development planning and reflective skills of undergraduates, paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, University of Glamorgan, 14th –17th September 2005. Marcus, J. and Choi, T. (1994) Neurolinguistic Programming: magic or myth? Journal of Accelerative Learning and Teaching, 19: 3-4: 309-342.
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